St.
Augustine, apart from Jesus Christ and the Apostle Paul, is arguably
the most influential figure in the history of Christianity. As both the
Bishop of Hippo (located in Northern Africa) and a notorious
philosopher, Augustine shaped the doctrines of the Catholic church and
created the litmus test for orthodoxy up to and through the Protestant
Reformation and beyond. Though it is difficult to summarize Augustine’s
major contributions, it is possible to provide the context and
consequences of the four major themes in Augustine’s theological and
philosophical thought which are still meaningful contemporary Christian
discussion.
It
is critical to keep in mind that Augustine was heavily influenced and
informed by both the Greek and Latin philosophical traditions. Augustine
uses the dialectical tools and ideological framework provided by these
traditions to understand and later explain Christian theology. From the
Augustinian perspective there is nothing inherently wrong in pagan
thought that makes it inadmissible in Christian theology--though useful,
it is simply not a full account of the truth.
Original Sin
Many
today, whether raised in a Christian environment or not, are familiar
with the notion of original sin. This concept refers to the “fall of
man” (Adam’s act of disobedience) articulated in Genesis 1, through
which Adam and his progeny inherited an unavoidably corrupt and fallen
human nature. Augustine is responsible for fashioning this doctrine,
though a bleak and under-explored version of it existed prior to his own
evaluation.
One
can turn to Augustine’s most famous work, Confessions, to understand
his articulation of “original sin.” In it he recounts an experience from
his youth when he was with a group of friends and stole pears from a
neighboring farm. As he wrestles with his motivations for taking the
fruit, Augustine concludes that he had an inordinate desire to take it.
In other words, he wanted to do it simply because he knew it was
wrong--he enjoyed and relished the evil: “It was foul, and I loved it. I
loved to perish. I loved my own error— not that for which I erred, but
the error itself.”[1] This
perverse desire (concupiscence), as far as Augustine is concerned,
results from the corruption of the will, incurred from the “fall of
man.” Man, being made for God should desire what leads him to union with
God. He should desire the perfect, the good, the truth. However, man
often prefers lesser goods (gratification of personal desires) to
greater goods (the love of God) and this is a result of his will not
functioning properly. The force of Augustine’s position echoed loudly
throughout the church and officially became doctrine in the Council of
Carthage (418 C.E.).
Grace
Now,
the notion of grace is, though largely informed by his understanding of
original sin, not one particular to Augustine. It is a major theme
throughout the Pauline epistles and was heavily discussed by the Greek
fathers. However, Augustine amplified the discussion of grace in what
Christian historians now call the “Pelagian controversy.” The reason
this debate is dubbed the Pelagian controversy is that Augustine’s
theology of grace, its importance in morality and soteriology
specifically, is largely developed through a series of letters to and
from another Christian contemporary of Augustine: Pelagius.
The
word grace in Christian theology tends to have a variety of meanings;
however, Augustine understands it as an unmerited gift of God’s love and
favor. The issue with Pelagius's account of grace is quite simple: he
doesn’t acknowledge it. As far as Augustine is concerned, due to
post-lapsarian (post-fall) position of man, we are in need of God’s
grace to desire and carry out the good. Grace serves as a remedy in many
ways to our fallen nature. Without it, mankind cannot act morally nor
can he find salvation. Pelagius believed that man was capable,
naturally, to desire and carry out the good. Moreover, this ability
meant that man was entirely responsible for his own salvation. If he
acted well, he was well-deserving of a reward; if he acted poorly, he
was well-deserving of punishment.
Now,
this debate with Pelagius was a pivotal moment in Christian discourse
because it helped elucidate the importance of grace in the moral life
and the very real effects of original sin according to the Christian
narrative. Much of the Gospel is predicated on the idea that man is
broken and in need of redemption. For Augustine, original sin is the
source of the brokenness; grace is the means or restoration. In essence,
man cannot save himself.
Pagan Virtue
Further,
Augustine re-shaped the way the Western world thought about the ethical
life. Augustine famously believed that the virtuous life was
exclusively Christian. In order to be ethical, one had to do the right
thing and carry it out for the right end (telos).[2] To
be a good or virtuous person did not merely mean acting the right way,
but acting the right way for the right reasons. And so, the Christian
faith effectively becomes the point of departure for the happy life—the
necessary teleological criterion for virtue. As Augustine himself
asserts: “In Christian times there can be no doubt at all as to which
religion is to be received and held fast, and as to where is the way
that leads to truth and beatitude.”[3]Essentially,
right belief (or Christianity) becomes paramount in acting well. This
view will radically change the trajectory of ethical thought and praxis
in the Western world until the dawn of the Enlightenment when both God’s
goodness and existence will be questioned.
Christian Communion
In
addition to the Pelagian controversy that looms largely over
Augustine’s later life, Augustine also persistently argued with another
faction of Christians in northern Africa called the Donatists.[4] In
short, his rebuke of Donatism is rooted in the dissension they were
causing in the church dating back to the year 303 C.E. As Harmless
explains, under the Emperor Diocletian Christians faced mass
persecution.[5] Not
only where many martyred in the name of faith, but several bishops were
forced under the threat of death to surrender Christian books and
scriptures to be burned. Although many refused to do so, others gave
into the demands of the emperor, fearing a brutal death.
According
to the Donatists these acts of betrayal—surrendering the
scriptures—were enough to constitute separation from the church. Thus,
the Donatists formed their own sect of the Christian faith, which they
claimed to be the true church “without spot or wrinkle.” Association
with those “unrighteous” bishops meant putting the efficacy of the
sacraments at risk. All of this is to say that Augustine’s polemic with
the Donatists primarily dealt with their resolve for separation from the
Catholics in Northern Africa. Augustine saw this schism as severely
wounding the unity within the body of Christ. Thus, Augustine’s
condemnation of Donatism was a statement about what it meant to be a
Christian: in catholic communion bound by the bond of mutual charity
(love). In this way love and unity were virtually inseparable.[6] Even
in spite of Augustine’s outrage in regards to their eager schismatic
efforts, Augustine urged that the Donatists be treated with tolerance
and love. This tone and exhortation would carry over into the Church’s
discussion of Donatism in the Council of Carthage (417 C.E.).
Conclusions
As
may be easy to see, Augustine was a rather impactful figure in
Christian history. He laid the groundwork for the formulation and
acceptance of the doctrine of original sin, launched a nuanced
discussion on the role of grace in the morality and soteriology, and set
the trajectory for Christian ethics and ecclesiology. Augustine is such
a formidable thinker that his writings stood, and still stand, as a
bulwark of orthodoxy in the Church. It is important to note, though,
that Augustine is not a static thinker. His philosophy and theology
drastically changed throughout his life. For example, after the Pelagian
controversy he became a more radical proponent of predestination, in
such a way that departed significantly from his earlier works. That
being said, depending on what time period one encounters Augustine, one
may be getting a more or less radical version of his thought. This is
why there are many various denominations who follow him closely, but
have drastically different theological positions.
References
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Jump up↑ Augustine, Confessions, trans. by J.G. Pilkington. From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, First Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff. (Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1887.) Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. <http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/110102.htm> II.4.9
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Jump up↑ Gaul, Brett. "Augustine on the Virtues of the Pagans." Augustinian Studies 40, no. 2 (2009): 233-249
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Jump up↑ Kaufman, Peter Iver. "Augustine, Evil, and Donatism: Sin and Sanctity before the Pelagian Controversy." Theological Studies 51, no. 1 (1990): 115-126.
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Jump up↑ Augustine, On Baptism, Book I.xii.18, qtd in Harmless, William. Augustine in His Own Words. (Catholic University of America Press:2010), 254
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Jump up↑ Park, Jae-Eun. "Lacking love or conveying love?: the fundamental roots of the Donatists and Augustine's nuanced treatment of them." The Reformed Theological Review 72, no. 2 (August 2013): 103-121.
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